Biological barriers to precision medicine applications significantly challenge its effectiveness. Genetic variability among individuals leads to differing responses to treatments, making it difficult to predict outcomes. Additionally, the complexity of diseases, especially those involving multiple genes and environmental factors, complicates the development of targeted therapies. Epigenetic modifications and gene-environment interactions further obscure the relationship between genotype and phenotype, limiting the precision of treatments. Moreover, the tumor microenvironment in cancer and the blood-brain barrier in neurological diseases pose significant obstacles to drug delivery. These barriers underscore the need for continued research and innovation to overcome the limitations of precision medicine.

Multifaceted mechanisms of mAbs against bacterial figure illustrates the complex mechanisms through which mAbs counteract bacterial infections. (A) Highlights the neutralization or inhibition of bacterial virulence factors by mAbs, mitigating their pathogenic effects. (B) The process of mAbs blocking receptor-mediated adhesion is depicted, preventing bacterial adherence to host cells and hindering the progression of infection. (C) Portrays the Antibody–Antibiotic Conjugate (ADC) strategy, where mAbs conjugated with antibiotics enhance the precision and effectiveness of bacterial targeting and elimination. (D) Focuses on the role of mAbs in inhibiting or disrupting biofilm formation, a primary bacterial defense mechanism, facilitating bacterial clearance. (E) Illustrates the mAb-mediated NETosis/opsonophagocytosis pathway, promoting bacterial clearance through the facilitation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and enhanced phagocytosis. (F) Delineates the activation of complement-dependent cytotoxicity by mAbs, leading to bacterial cell lysis. (G) Illustrates the synergy between innate and adaptive immune responses facilitated by mAbs in Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC), enhancing the clearance of bacterial infections.  [1]